... here's the interesting part: The Partial Energy Factor 𝗰𝗮𝗻 𝘃𝗮𝗿𝘆 𝗯𝘆 𝗮𝘀 𝗺𝘂𝗰𝗵 𝗮𝘀 𝟲𝟱% depending on the combination of these conditions. Let’s break it down in three simple examples:

• Favourable Conditions + Class A = 𝟭.𝟯𝟬 

• Moderate Conditions + Class A = 𝟭.𝟲𝟬 📈 

• Unfavourable Conditions + Class B = 𝟮.𝟭𝟱📈📈 

While the difference might seem small at first, the Partial Energy Factor 𝗱𝗶𝗿𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗹𝘆 𝗮𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗰𝘁𝘀 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝘀𝗶𝘇𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱, 𝘁𝘆𝗽𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗳𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 𝘀𝘆𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗺, 𝗮𝘀 𝘄𝗲𝗹𝗹 𝗮𝘀 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗴𝘁𝗵 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝘀𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘀𝘁𝗿𝘂𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲𝘀 needed to withstand the applicable forces. The multiplying effect of the Partial Energy Factor means, we’re facing 𝗹𝗮𝗿𝗴𝗲𝗿 𝗽𝗮𝗻𝗲𝗹𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗿𝘂𝗯𝗯𝗲𝗿 𝘂𝗻𝗶𝘁𝘀, as well as 𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗼𝗻𝗴𝗲𝗿, 𝗺𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗲𝘅𝗽𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗶𝘃𝗲 𝘀𝘂𝗽𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘀𝘁𝗿𝘂𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲𝘀.

Numbers are eye-catching, but their real impact lies in how they influence the design to ensure 𝗼𝗽𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗮𝗹 𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲, 𝘀𝗮𝗳𝗲𝘁𝘆, and 𝗰𝗼𝘀𝘁-𝗲𝗳𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗰𝘆.

Now, the real question is not just about determining the factor but to ensure the fender system has the right-sized for the conditions, but also: 𝗪𝗵𝗼 𝗮𝗿𝗲 𝘆𝗼𝘂 𝘁𝗿𝘂𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘁𝗼 𝗴𝘂𝗶𝗱𝗲 𝘆𝗼𝘂 𝘁𝗵𝗿𝗼𝘂𝗴𝗵 𝘁𝗵𝗶𝘀 𝗰𝗮𝗹𝗰𝘂𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗲𝗻𝘀𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝘆𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝘀𝘆𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗺 𝗶𝘀 𝗱𝗲𝘀𝗶𝗴𝗻𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗼 𝗮𝗯𝘀𝗼𝗿𝗯 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗿𝗶𝗴𝗵𝘁 𝗮𝗺𝗼𝘂𝗻𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗿𝗴𝘆 𝗯𝘂𝘁 𝗸𝗲𝗲𝗽𝘀 𝗲𝗻𝗴𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗷𝘂𝗱𝗴𝗲𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗺𝗼𝗻 𝘀𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗲 𝗶𝗻 𝗺𝗶𝗻𝗱❓

𝗟𝗲𝘁’𝘀 𝗱𝗶𝘀𝗰𝘂𝘀𝘀 𝗵𝗼𝘄 𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗻 𝘀𝗺𝗮𝗹𝗹 𝗺𝗼𝘃𝗲 𝗶𝗻 𝗳𝗶𝗴𝘂𝗿𝗲𝘀 𝗰𝗮𝗻 𝗹𝗲𝗮𝗱 𝘁𝗼 𝗯𝗶𝗴 𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗴𝗲𝘀 𝗶𝗻 𝗳𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 𝘀𝘆𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗺 𝗱𝗲𝘀𝗶𝗴𝗻. 

#Chapter4 outlines the key parameters that guide the design process or lay the groundwork for a comprehensive Basis of Design document:

Functional requirements: The core purpose of the fender system
☑️ Operational requirements: During berthing and mooring conditions
☑️ Site conditions: Environmental factors and berth configuration

⚠️ Design Criteria, Return Period, and Design Life
PIANC’s Guidelines emphasize that while fender systems typically have a design life of 20 years, they must be built to handle 50-year return period loads. An under-designed fender won’t provide the needed performance and berthing forces might be introduced directly into the structure. Even if replaced within 20 years, the fender's design must account for the loads it will encounter throughout its lifecycle.

🚧 Operation and Maintenance
To keep the fender system functional over its service life, a maintenance and inspection plan must be established in the design phase and passed on to the operator for ongoing implementation.

🚨 Reliability Requirements
The most critical factor in reliability is the consequence class, which impacts energy, safety, and load factors. Selected by the asset owner, this class determines the risk level, with Class A and B being the most common for marine structures.

🔍 Key takeaway: Designers should focus on fender systems to be customized to the structure’s specific needs, balancing short-term durability with long-term reliability. Avoid creating sole-source specifications, as a similar energy absorption may have varying reaction forces across different manufacturers.

At ShibataFenderTeam, we bring decades of expertise in fender system design, manufacturing, and maintenance. As industry leaders, we support consultancy firms and stakeholders throughout the design process, ensuring reliable, safe solutions for every project.

In existing structures making modifications can be a complex task, and the importance of edge distance is often overlooked in the design of new structures.

The key to success lies 𝗶𝗻 𝗽𝗿𝗼𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲 𝗰𝗼𝗹𝗹𝗮𝗯𝗼𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝘄𝗶𝘁𝗵 𝗳𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 𝗺𝗮𝗻𝘂𝗳𝗮𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲𝗿𝘀. Engaging with them early in the design process can yield essential insights into the overall layout of the fender system, including the positioning of chains.

👉 Here are our recommendations to consider during the design stage of fender projects:

⛓️ The edge distance is most critical for chain anchors, as they are subject to tension when the fender system is in operation. An inadequate edge distance can lead anchor break-out and damage to the quay wall.

⏪⏩ For the initial layout design,  an edge distance of approximately 8-10 times the anchor diameter in all directions is recommended. This serves as a solid starting point for ensuring adequate clearance and system functionality.

↔️ While smaller edge distances are feasible, they require a thorough examination of the quay wall design by the designer. This may include adding extra reinforcement based on the loads, provided by the fender manufacturer.

➕Beyond edge distance, other factors like thickness of the quay wall section at the fender location and the grade of concrete should not be overlooked. These elements are integral to the overall strength and effectiveness of the anchor design.

Molded fenders are made from the outside in, from several molded parts that are stitched together in the final steps of the manufacturing process, while wrapped fenders are manufactured from the inside out and typically consist of a homogeneous fender body with a continuous nylon tire-cord.

- If made from several sections, the tire-cord is not continuous and stitched layers are potentially vulnerable to fail.

- Wrapped fenders, with its uniform inner rubber body, provide strength evenly.

Also, keep in mind, that regardless of the method, both are fully compliant with ISO 17357-1:2014. This standard specifies the material, performance and dimensions as well as the test and inspection procedures of the finished product.

How manufacturers 🏭 achieve this compliance, is entirely up to them.

In terms of certification, the fender should come with a third party prototype test, aka “type approval”, guaranteeing full compliance with ISO17357.

Be aware, that this “type approval” is different than a one according to PIANC.

Last but not least, please also note that it is a common misconception in the maritime industry to consider launching airbags of being similar to pneumatic fenders.

Technology, structure and production methods are different; in fact, both serve totally different purposes.

There are other significant differences that make it advisable to put the decision for one or the other manufacturing method in the hands of an experienced manufacturer.

For more details, please contact your SFT closest expert.

➡️ to achieve a strong bonding between the foam layers
➡️ to create the solid and homogeneous fender core.

𝗪𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗶𝘀 𝗶𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝘁𝗼 𝗸𝗻𝗼𝘄?

⚠️ Heat lamination is superior compared to adhesives which could break down over time and therefore, could lead to bonding failure in a short period of time.

🔁 The heat lamination process ensures an increased life cycle and a reliable performance of foam fenders.

⏩ ⏪ The lamination has to be done correctly: Pressure is key, and without adequate pressure, the performance and life cycle of the product is impaired.

↪️ The 𝗰𝗼𝗿𝗿𝗲𝗰𝘁 𝗽𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗿𝗲 𝗱𝘂𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗺𝗮𝗻𝘂𝗳𝗮𝗰𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗶𝘀 𝘃𝗶𝘁𝗮𝗹 to basically all high performance fenders in the market, both to rubber and foam fenders.

SFT with its own manufacturing facility for foam products in Germany combines pure craftsmanship 🔧 of our skilled workers with the right equipment and long-standing know-how 💡.

For more information on Foam Fenders #MadeInGermany or a visit to our manufacturing facility, please get in touch with our sales offices around the world 🌍.

Once the specific parameters and requirements for your project have been determined, the manufacturer starts with the manufacturing of your customized fenders.

Ensuring compliance with your requirements is done via the so-called 𝗩𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗧𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 - the most relevant fender testing procedure as it confirms the performance and material quality of the product.

Verification testing consists of:

☑️ material testing
☑️ traceability
☑️ performance testing
☑️ verification of dimensions
☑️ visual checking

The first one is done on the actual rubber compound used for the production of the fender, whereas the other test procedures are performed on the final fender that has been produced for your individual project.

All of them are covered in more depth in our 𝗪𝗵𝗶𝘁𝗲 𝗣𝗮𝗽𝗲𝗿 #𝟰 ‘𝗧𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 – 𝗔 𝗯𝗲𝘀𝘁-𝗽𝗿𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗲 𝗮𝗽𝗽𝗿𝗼𝗮𝗰𝗵’. ⬅️ Download it from our website and Join The Safe Side.

With a preventive maintenance program in place, your equipment is regularly checked for wear and tear – and it is possible to replace or repair worn components before they cause a failure. 

𝗧𝗵𝗲𝘀𝗲 𝗮𝗿𝗲 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝟰 𝗿𝗲𝗮𝘀𝗼𝗻𝘀 𝘄𝗵𝘆 𝗽𝗿𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲 𝗺𝗮𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗻𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝘀𝗵𝗼𝘂𝗹𝗱 𝗻𝗼𝘁 𝗯𝗲 𝗶𝗴𝗻𝗼𝗿𝗲𝗱:
✔️ Enable safe and efficient operations at the port
✔️ Reduce the potential for accidents
✔️ Increase the operational life of marine fenders
✔️ Reduce operational costs

Remember: The cost for downtime of the berth, liability claims and the cost to repair potential damages is always higher than carrying out a preventive maintenance program or repair equipment/order spare parts.

An ideal and well executed maintenance program would ensure 𝘇𝗲𝗿𝗼 𝗱𝗼𝘄𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗲.

For more information on maintenance, visit our website to download our 𝗜𝗻𝘀𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻, 𝗢𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗠𝗮𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗻𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝗠𝗮𝗻𝘂𝗮𝗹 and our free 𝗺𝗮𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗻𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝗰𝗵𝗲𝗰𝗸𝗹𝗶𝘀𝘁 (available in 7 languages).

Where the berthing analysis focuses on the kinetic energy of the vessel during berthing, the mooring analysis focuses on forces on the berthed vessel, that are due to wind, current, tension lines and others. A thorough mooring analysis can prevent the fender from damages and failure. Here is how:

The mooring analysis might reveal that load cases need to be considered that include 𝗰𝘆𝗰𝗹𝗶𝗰 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝘀𝘁𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗹𝗼𝗮𝗱𝘀. The main difference here is that with cyclic loads, there is an oscillation motion, whereas constant loads deflect the fender permanently until release of the vessel. Both loads could also occur simultaneously, which poses potential design challenges to the fender and its life cycle.

Examples for cyclic and constant load cases are permanent mooring situations, like
➡️ FSRU’s
➡️ floating docks
➡️ stationary vessels, like museum vessels (e.g. the barque ‘Peking’ in Hamburg)

Taking into account cyclic and constant loads during the design process, the designer needs to focus on the 𝗳𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿’𝘀 𝗿𝗲𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗲, to make sure that wind and other loads do not exceed the load limits of a fender. But most important, the 𝗱𝗲𝗳𝗹𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗳𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 under cyclic and constant loads should be limited.

That could be achieved by  
☑️ a correct mooring arrangement, and/or
☑️ an oversized fender where the expected loads correspond to a 5-10% deflection of the fender.

📝 𝘍𝘦𝘯𝘥𝘦𝘳𝘴 𝘰𝘧 𝘢𝘭𝘭 𝘵𝘺𝘱𝘦𝘴, 𝘨𝘳𝘢𝘥𝘦𝘴, 𝘲𝘶𝘢𝘭𝘪𝘵𝘪𝘦𝘴, 𝘱𝘳𝘪𝘤𝘦𝘴 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘧𝘳𝘰𝘮 𝘢𝘭𝘭 𝘮𝘢𝘯𝘶𝘧𝘢𝘤𝘵𝘶𝘳𝘦𝘳𝘴 𝘸𝘪𝘭𝘭 𝘧𝘢𝘪𝘭 𝘪𝘧 𝘯𝘰𝘵 𝘥𝘦𝘴𝘪𝘨𝘯𝘦𝘥 𝘧𝘰𝘳 𝘤𝘺𝘤𝘭𝘪𝘤 𝘰𝘳 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘴𝘵𝘢𝘯𝘵 𝘭𝘰𝘢𝘥𝘴 𝘣𝘶𝘵 𝘣𝘦𝘪𝘯𝘨 𝘦𝘹𝘱𝘰𝘴𝘦𝘥 𝘵𝘰 𝘴𝘶𝘤𝘩.

𝗖𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝘀𝗲𝘁 is the amount of permanent deformation of a material after it had been compressed. Or seeing it from another perspective, it is the percentage that a material fails to recover of its original height after being compressed. 🏈

Or seeing it from another perspective, it is the percentage that a material fails to recover of its original height after being compressed. For example, a compression set for foam fenders of 20% indicates that the foam fender only regained 80% of its uncompressed diameter.
There are several reasons for that:  

▶️ overloading

▶️ insufficient foam density for the application 

▶️ manufacturing method 

Fenders which are laminated with small strips of foam are more prone to that, due to the higher probability of gaps in-between the layers and potential bonding failures between layers. This can be avoided by using wide sheets of 1.5m – 2m, which is the SFT standard.

Co𝗻sequences are simple but severe. If a foam fender’s compression set is too high, it’s diameter is smaller than before. This can lead to  

▶️ Clearance issues especially for ship-to-ship operations 

▶️ Reduced energy absorption of the fender 

▶️ Smaller deflection as the fender only recovers to a smaller amount of its original diameter 

▶️ Reduced life time, higher cost of ownership to the early replacements 

▶️ Fender is less sustainable as the foam core is permanently damaged and the fender needs to be replaced

Manufacturing and designing foam fenders requires longstanding expertise and skills – something where you can truly rely on us. We manufacture foam fenders of various sizes at our own production facility in Germany, from Ocean Guard Fenders, to Donut Fenders, to Buoys.  

have a look on our website and learn more about Foam Fenders

Each chain type has its own responsibility:

The very same fender system at exactly the opposite stage of its life cycle. A fender system needs several types of chains to perform as expected – weight chains, tension chains, and sometimes also shear chains. Each chain type has its own responsibility:

The 𝘄𝗲𝗶𝗴𝗵𝘁 𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗶𝗻 of a fender system supports the weight of the panel and avoids sagging  and is providing support in cases of vertical shear. It is the only chain that works 24/7, the other chains are only active when the fender is being compressed.  

An incorrect 𝘁𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗶𝗻 design could diminish the energy absorption of the fender system at low level contact.

𝗦𝗵𝗲𝗮𝗿 𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗶𝗻𝘀 are recommended for applications where large horizontal shear forces are expected, e.g. at ferry terminals or when vessels are winched along the quay.  

Incorrect or even missing chains can have several negative impacts.   

📷 ① It shows an Element Fender System that was installed without chains, following the requirements of the designer, against our strict recommendations. It is clearly visible that the rubber fender is sagging, as tension and weight chains are missing – the panel’s dead weight is only supported by the rubber unit. This leads to more stress in the rubber unit, resulting in cracks, and ultimately lowering its performance and service life. Some might say, that would not happen with a “good” rubber fender, but the laws of physics are what they are, so don’t fall for that.  

📷 ② Later, chains were installed as the user pushed for that – the result is obvious: a fender system with a supportive chain, all in all a high-quality and durable system. Some of the rubber units needed to be replaced though, following their damage by the incorrect design.  

Correctly designed chains will protect the rubber unit against excessive weight introduction and premature failure.

This high-quality design ensures a long service life, high performance and no additional maintenance cost. Our #engineering team has a long proven track record in the design of marine fender systems - Join the safe side and partner with SFT for your next project.

You will find more information about chains on our website.

There are several systems on the market, where some companies simply add small recesses in the rubber unit to drain the water. Considering the amount of water in a fender cavity, the only way to sufficiently drain the water is with a custom designed drainage system through the substructure or steel fender panel.

💬 Another issue to consider is marine growth that could clog-up the drainage system, especially if there are only small rubber recesses. It is therefore recommended that the drainage system is considered in the initial design of the fender system and substructure. Especially for fender systems on mono-steel piles, there are some very simple and economical drainage solutions that can be integrated into the connecting flange between pile and fender. For further questions or design suggestions, please contact your local SFT office.

In order to fully utilize this test approach for your project, we have introduced a new test protocol for high performance fenders like Cone or Cell Fenders, a combined shear compression test.

Only a combined and simultaneous shear compression testing provides the information you need to make sure your fender is up for the job. More and more clients realize that and start implementing this into their test requirements.

Model testing with 25k cycles and full scale testing with typical 1-3 cycles is possible. Due to the cost and time involved, full scale testing with max. 3 cycles is recommended for your demanding and sensitive projects.

⚠️ Keep in mind that fenders typically experience compression and shear at the same time when being used at the berth. ⚠️

Testing can also be done by the customer themselves when a rubber sheet made from the same compound as used for their fenders is tested.

Each property and standard has their own conditioning parameters like storage conditions or timing of the test, and the testing processes have to strictly follow that. If tests are not done according to the mandated parameters, results could vary from the requirements. Always double check condition time and storing requirements with the respective standard or consult your fender manufacturer.
Customers can also test the composition of the rubber sheet to check for traceability by performing a TGA test. This is done to verify that the compound of the sample sheet used for physical property testing is the same compound that was used in the final product. Traceability verification is done by comparing TGA results of the final product with the results of the rubber sheet. The results should be similar but can deviate to some degree due to laboratory conditions.
For further details, please contact us.

Rubber compounds can have very different compositions, depending on their required performance criteria which have to comply with international standards and guidelines like PIANC2002, ASTM D2000, EAU 2004, ROM 2.0-11 (2012), or BS6349.

💡 These guidelines ensure that a fender performs as designed when installed at a berth.

• The rubber samples that are needed for the physical property testing are taken from the finalized compound. They are precisely prepared and then cured at a laboratory.

• Afterwards, they are tested under strict laboratory conditions, including tensile and bonding strength, compression set, hardness, elongation, tear and abrasion resistance, chemical and ozone resistance, and aging.

High energy absorption while having acceptable reaction forces is key to a good fender system design. However, simply calculating 📐 the berthing energy requirements results in a long list of suitable fender types and sizes

How to select the right fender?

There are many other factors which need to be considered ✔️, like: vessel details (e.g. vessel type, hull pressure, beltings), berthing information (e.g. berthing mode, type of substructure, fender spacing, stand-off requirements), project conditions 🌊, preferences of the client 📝, and more. Selecting the right fender for your specific project needs a unique approach and cannot be done by an automated tool.

The topic of fender selection again shows why it is beneficial to rely on 𝗽𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗲𝘅𝗽𝗲𝗿𝘁𝗶𝘀𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗲𝘅𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲.

Contact us 📞 📧 for a 𝗳𝗿𝗲𝗲 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝘀𝘂𝗹𝘁𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 – we are available already at the design stage of your project.

🔴 Did you know that the weight chain of a fender system is the only chain working 24/7? It supports the weight of the panel and avoids sagging – the other chains are only active when the fender is being compressed. ♒️

🎈 What you should know:

↪ The ideal angle between the substructure and the chain should be 30-35° to provide full support for the fender panel

↪️ If the angle is larger, like 50°, the chain cannot support the panel: all the weight and force of the panel is introduced into the rubber unit (P2)

↪️ The rubber unit might develop cracks, especially at the top flange areas (P3)

We often see fenders with these kinds of defects and make people aware that in a lot of cases, the failure is not the result of low-quality components, but rather a flawed design of the fender system.

A holistic approach to fender system design considers the balance of all components and its interaction to achieve a high-quality fender system.

The key 🎵is that an improvement of the properties is tied to the right use of the material.

1️⃣ A rubber compound which consists of more Natural Rubber than Synthetic Rubber needs a lower orcement, as Natural Rubber is already well reinforced by nature – less CB is needed. *𝗢𝗻𝗲 𝘀𝗶𝘇𝗲 𝗳𝗶𝘁𝘀 𝗮𝗹𝗹 𝗱𝗼𝗲𝘀 𝗻𝗼𝘁 𝘄𝗼𝗿𝗸*

2️⃣ If too much Carbon Black is used in the compound, the result will be a decrease in properties (see diagram below). The decrease results from overloading the compound with CB as there is not enough rubber left in the compound to disperse it. *𝗠𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗶𝘀 𝗻𝗼𝘁 𝗮𝗹𝘄𝗮𝘆𝘀 𝗯𝗲𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿*

3️⃣ The grade and particle size of Carbon Black plays an important role for the compound quality. Smaller particles have a larger specific surface area and therefore a higher ability to react with the other components in the rubber blend. *𝗦𝗺𝗮𝗹𝗹𝗲𝗿 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲𝘀 𝗺𝗮𝗸𝗲 𝗮 𝗱𝗶𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗰𝗲*

A vessel with beltings imparts a line load onto the panel; this concentrated load case is so severe, that the panel might break in the contact area.